When faced with an aggressive dog, it is not always easy to know how to react. When you come across an unfamiliar dog, vigilance is required and it is important to identify the signs of aggression in order to defuse the conflict or to move away from the dog without incidence. When it comes to your own pet, it is essential to anticipate risks and prevent certain situations that may cause aggression, but also to implement new, healthier habits that will help the dog regain trust and a more balanced relationship with its owner. Let's take stock of this.

Aggression in dogs: how to understand this phenomenon?

Whether it's your pooch or a dog you come across on a walk, an animal's aggression is not always easy to understand. Nevertheless, behaviorists have been able to identify several forms of canine aggression that may explain its origin.

• Competitiveness: the dog can be aggressive in the context of access to resources. It can be access to their food, but also to their bed or space, to their toys or to their owner's favours.
• Pain: An injured or ailing dog can be aggressive. It is usually a defense meant to repel those who try to approach it.
• Irritation: The dog can be aggressive when provoked or pushed to the limit, intentionally or not. It can be an insistent owner who insists on petting it when the animal does not want it, or for example children who try to play with the dog to the point of annoying it.
• Fear: A dog that is scared can be aggressive. This form of aggression is often difficult to control, as it is usually sudden and unpredictable (following a sudden noise, fireworks, thunderstorm, etc.). An abandoned dog, left to its own devices, can be aggressive towards those who cross its path, because it feels alone and vulnerable, a fear it cannot control.
• Predation: hunting dogs are the most affected, but they are not the only ones. These pooches can be aggressive when chasing animal prey or a toy or moving object.
• Maternal protection: the dog who has just given birth to her puppies is usually very protective of them, sometimes to the point of being aggressive towards those who approach them.
• Territoriality: Protective dogs, which have a strong guarding and defending instinct, can be aggressive towards any intruder who enters their territory.

Preventing your dog's aggression: how to go about it?

 While walking, you cross paths with a dog you don't know. Whether he is alone or accompanied by his owner, it is important to remain cautious and avoid any bad gestures. While many dogs are very sociable and happy to meet new people, others are more suspicious or fearful and may be aggressive. Here are some tips on how to safely approach an unfamiliar pooch.

Approaching an unfamiliar dog: you start by observing its behavior

If you cross paths with an unfamiliar dog, whether alone or accompanied by its owner, you must be vigilant in your approach. To adapt your driving, start by observing the animal.

Recognizing a Sociable Dog

A sociable dog is more confident when it meets people you don't know. It usually tends to move naturally towards them, wagging its tail, without apprehension.

Some pooches may even seek contact and stick to their legs to get pets.

Recognizing a Suspicious Dog

Conversely, a more suspicious dog will be less likely to naturally approach unfamiliar people. If he comes towards them, it will be with his body tense, his tail wagging with rapid beats. In some cases, the dog may try to make itself bigger and more impressive by bristling its coat or pointing its ears forward. They may also lower their head or ears and move away when approaching the stranger, or even try to avoid contact, especially if they are afraid.

Be careful, however, as some pooches may growl or even bark if you try to get closer. It's not necessarily a sign of aggression, but it can be a dog that lacks confidence and is suspicious at first, as some humans may be of other people they meet for the first time.

Don't underestimate these dogs who can react to their fear by fleeing, but also by aggressiveness, which is above all an act of defense. To avoid injury, it's best to be vigilant.

How do you approach an unknown dog? The rules of good behaviour.

If you approach a dog you don't know, it's important to adopt a neutral behavior that the animal won't perceive as a potential threat.

How to behave when dealing with an unfamiliar dog?

To prevent the animal from misinterpreting your gestures, here are three points to respect.

The Gaze

Don't look the dog in the eye, don't try to stare at him, as he may interpret this as a provocation. It's better to be indifferent so that the animal doesn't risk perceiving you as a potential threat.

Contact

Let the dog come to you to allow him to sniff you for a few seconds. You can talk to him gently, but let him feel you without trying to touch him.

The gesture

Be as relaxed as possible, as the animal will perceive your stress and may be aggressive in response. Don't rush things and observe the animal. If he seems to be looking for contact, you can reach out to him gently to stroke him, vertically and with your fingers folded, avoiding his head and back. Prefer a caress under the chin, which is a non-dominant gesture and an area that limits the risk of bites. Avoid cuddling, as hugging an unfamiliar animal can trigger a stress response in the pooch.

If he doesn't look for it, let him evolve around you or continue on his way without insisting.

If the animal seems calm and wants to 'get to know' you, you can crouch down to reassure it. Be careful, however, not to be too abrupt or lean too close to him, he may feel that you are trying to dominate him. Give him space, crouch down at a certain distance so that he can then come to you.

Be careful, as the animal may appear serene but this does not mean that it will not be aggressive. A simple gesture that is too brutal on your part can destabilize him.

Ask your owner for advice.

If the dog you come across is accompanied by its owner, the best thing to do is to ask the owner if you can touch his little companion. Indeed, he will be able to tell you if it is better to avoid contact, especially if the dog is aggressive, or he will be able to give you any instructions to approach him safely.

What should I avoid when approaching an unfamiliar dog?

We have seen the right gestures to favor when approaching a dog that we do not know, but it also seems essential to us to take stock of what not to do, on the contrary. Indeed, we must not forget that our doggies do not perceive things as we humans do. To avoid misinterpretation, here's what to avoid.

You don't pet a dog that's tense, nervous or stressed.

The dog you pass may approach to sniff you, but that doesn't necessarily mean they want to be petted. If he seems nervous or tense, avoid touching him.

You don't pet a dog on 'the top'.

Some dogs don't like to have their head or back touched. Petting them in this way by approaching the hand from above can put them in a position of inferiority, and therefore vulnerability.

It is better to wait until the dog seems to be in favor of contact before touching it, favoring the chin or flanks.

You don't stare a dog straight in the eye.

Staring into the animal's eyes can induce a feeling of unease. The animal may perceive it as an attempt at dominance or intimidation and react aggressively.

We don't run to the dog.

This type of behavior is stressful for the animal. Approaching too quickly is very nerve-wracking. We ourselves would feel uncomfortable if someone we don't know suddenly ran up to us to talk to us or touch us.

Similarly, do not insist if the dog does not want contact. You have to respect your need for peace and quiet.

You don't cuddle the dog.

Leaning over and hugging the dog is a sign of dominance that he can find very difficult to bear. This makes them feel particularly vulnerable, and this position of inferiority can trigger an aggressive reaction.

Fingers and faces are not extended to the dog

Avoid placing your face too close to the dog and do not reach out with your fingers unfolded. It is better to fold your fingers and present the palm or fist, always gently and carefully.

The approach of an unknown dog: beware of children!

It is essential to be very careful if you come across an unfamiliar dog when you are with your children. The little ones are often tempted to run towards these large balls of fur to touch them, but this is a gesture that can be dangerous if the animal is tense, stressed, or not open to contact.

As a parent, teach your children early on not to approach an unfamiliar dog without first asking permission from its owner. It is not a question of frightening your offspring, but of teaching respect for each other and in particular the need for tranquility of an animal. Teach your children how to behave with a dog or any other animal. The doggies you come across are not cuddly toys, take the lead to prevent your small child from becoming aware of it by being bitten or attacked.

What to do if the dog is aggressive?

It is important to know how to behave when faced with an aggressive unfamiliar dog so that you adopt the right attitude so as not to arouse the pet's nervousness.

What not to do when dealing with an aggressive dog

Do not try to threaten him, yell at him, or make loud gestures to scare him away and make him flee, as he will perceive it as a provocation and an attempt at domination. On the contrary, his first move is likely to be an attack to defend himself. Also, don't stare him in the eye.

More often than not, small dogs are the most nervous and aggressive. This behavior is explained by their smallness. To defend themselves, they have to establish themselves as more dangerous than they are, which causes them to growl, bark, or hop to frighten or even bite. And don't underestimate their bite, it can be painful, especially in a young child!

Avoid any power struggle. If you feel like you're being ridiculous in front of a little pooch barking at you vehemently, it's even more foolish to get into conflict out of sheer pride. Move on, because the outcome of the conflict might not even be to your advantage.

Of course, avoid sudden gestures and shouting. You would only put more stress on the animal, making it feel all the more threatened. Keep your hands in your pockets to protect them and don't run away, as this will trigger the dog's hunting instinct and it may then start chasing you.

What to do when dealing with an aggressive dog

Stay calm as much as possible and as neutral as possible. Try to mask your fear so that he doesn't perceive it, as this will increase his feelings of stress and aggressive response. Show respect to the animal to let them know that they have no reason to be afraid of you.

If the animal is guarding territory that you have unknowingly entered, it is best not to continue on your way. Get out without turning your back on it and without rushing. You can also talk to him calmly and gently to soothe him.

You can try to calm the dog down by giving commands firmly but without aggression. 'Lying down! ' or 'Don't move! ' can help you keep it at bay if the pet is being trained.

What to do in the event of an attack?

If the dog attacks you, protect your hands and face. Be careful, by the way! In the event of a bite, do not try to pull the bitten limb out of the bite, as the dog will only tighten its fangs. Instead, try to act slowly and talk calmly to soothe him, this will limit the damage.

 As an example of well-being, the bathroom can be seen as a living space in its own right and offers even more comfort. But it is also gearing up with energy savings, with less energy-consuming equipment, for better control of our consumption without saying goodbye to pleasure.

Raw, natural materials in the bathroom.

Soft colours inspired by nature.

Space-saving layouts.

Upholstery full of character.

A more economical bathroom.

A greener bathroom.

Connected bathroom equipment.

Fittings are more elegant than ever.

 Trees normally grow in the ground to have enough nourishing substrate to grow and stay in place for many years, sometimes several hundred years for the most vigorous. However, if you don't have a garden large enough to install one or more trees, or if your outdoor space is limited to a terrace or balcony, you can still plant them with shrubs but also by selecting certain species of trees. Here are our top 10 trees to grow in pots.

1 – Lemon tree

The lemon tree (Citrus limon) somewhat satisfies our desires for exoticism with its evergreen foliage. Although it is associated with the southern sun, the beautiful light, and the warmth, it is not grown indoors. It is used to being grown in pots, as long as it is wintered without frost, in a veranda or garage with a small light source, or otherwise in the shelter of a wall, under a terrace for example.

You can also opt for kumquat (Fortunella margarita) which is more resistant to cold (-10°C). Potted citrus trees should be planted from spring to late summer, in a pot with drainage containing a substrate heavy enough to retain water because, contrary to popular belief, lack of water is often the cause of the death of the lemon tree. In any case, potted citrus fruits then require regular pruning and repotting.

2 – Olive tree

The olive tree (Olea europaea) also takes us back to the sunny terraces of Provence, listening to the song of the cicadas. But then again, many of them have perished as they have been installed too cold in the northern half of France! This tree, with its silvery-grey evergreen foliage, and often tortured trunk, should be grown in a large pot, so as not to feel cramped, pierced for drainage, and protected from the sharp cold in winter, by covering it with its pot, with a winter veil, because below -10°C, you will lose it.

A warm and sunny location is a must before considering the maintenance of a potted olive tree. If your deck is north-facing, forget about that tree. And if your region still has harsh winters, choose more cold-hardy varieties such as 'Aglandau' or 'Cipressino' which can withstand temperatures as low as -15°C.

3 - Japanese Maple

The Japanese maple (Acer palmatum) also makes us travel further afield, to Asia (China, Korea, Japan), with a huge advantage that allows it to resist the cold much more since its hardiness reaches -20 to -23°C.  Its palmate, delicate, light foliage takes on wonderful orange, carmine red, and purple tones in autumn before falling off because it is deciduous. It will prefer less sunny situations in a humus-rich substrate with an acidic tendency.

Its advantage also lies in its compact habit, relatively slow growth, and modest size, which makes it particularly suitable for growing in pots.

4 - Dwarf Judean Tree

The dwarf Judas tree (Cercis chinensis 'Avondale') is a slow growth that will not allow it to exceed 2m in height. With its abundant dark pink flowers on all the branches that bloom before the leaves in spring, this variety with its compact habit obviously finds its place in pots on a terrace, in a light, well-drained substrate, even dry and calcareous, without fear of summer drought, nor winter cold since it resists down to -20°C.

Its heart-shaped, rounded, thick, deciduous leaves change colour as they evolve: red in the juvenile stage, then green, then turning golden yellow in autumn. It has everything to please in all seasons, after all!

5 - Shrimp Willow

The Shrimp Willow (Salix integra 'Hakuro-Nishiki') stands out in spring when it is covered with salmon pink and green leaves, evolving into a mix of cream and green to form a bushy, almost ball-shaped habit in the summer season, before losing its leaves in autumn. Particularly hardy (-30°C), this small willow could have been created precisely to sit in a pot on a terrace as it ticks all the boxes of the requirements of this crop.

Growing it in a pot filled with a cool, rich, heavy substrate, even moist, exposed to a mild sun, not too hot, or even in light shade, it will give you an impression of light, with its extraordinary foliage. And its development will hardly exceed 1.5m in height.

6 - Saw palmetto

The saw palmetto (Chamaerops humilis) is probably one of the easiest palms to grow, which explains why it also wins the palm (!) of the most sold and cultivated. Hardy to -12°C, this saw palmetto has bright green evergreen foliage, very indented, arranged in a bushy rosette, which makes it perfectly suited to growing in pots, especially as its growth is slow.

Palm trees are synonymous with exoticism and warmth, so consider offering them a sheltered location, in full sun, in a sandy substrate, very well-drained, and even dry.

7 - Dwarf Pine

The dwarf pine (Pinus mugo) or mountain pine is characterized by its slow growth and its rounded, compact, bushy habit, which will never make it exceed 3m in height, or even only 2m for the variety 'Gnom'. Its rigid dark green needles create dense foliage, but the 'Winter Gold' variety is noticeable by its golden foliage in winter. Other conifers find a suitable place on a terrace, grown in pots.

Particularly hardy (-30°C), these dwarf pines are not very demanding on the nature of the substrate, which must however be well drained but required to be able to take advantage of a sunny exposure.

8 – Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus has many species and varieties among which the horticultural variety Eucalyptus gunnii 'France Bleu' will be perfectly adapted for cultivation in pots or tanks since it is a dwarf form (3m). Its bluish, aromatic evergreen foliage is irresistible in its lightness and elegance. If necessary, you can prune it to force it into a more compact habit.

In full sun, sheltered from cold winds, in a light, rich, dry, well-drained substrate, this eucalyptus will resist both cold down to -12°C, as well as episodes of summer drought provided it is watered a little.

9 - Flowering Dogwood

The flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) is prized for the beauty of its bright spring blooms in clusters surrounded by 4 pink petal-like bracts, and its deciduous foliage that takes on attractive hues of red, orange, and purple in the fall, around decorative fruits.

It will thrive best in light sun and partial shade. Its rather slow growth and its spreading and rounded shape make it a tree suitable for growing in large containers, containing a humus-rich substrate, rather acidic, fresh, rich, and well-drained.

10 – Dwarf Fruit Trees

We tend to favor ornamental trees and forget about the others, whereas planting dwarf fruit trees on your balcony or terrace is very well considered. Beyond citrus, dwarf varieties of apple, cherry, and other fruits like strawberry tree, peach, or figality dwarf fig (Ficus carica Figality®) can be grown in pots.

To allow them to produce fruit, it will be necessary to install a drip irrigation system at their base, without which the fruits will not grow. Fertilizers are also necessary since the nutrients in the substrate remain limited.

You are now spoilt for choice when it comes to a potted tree, so to help you select the most suitable one, be sure to consider the specific needs of each of the species you are interested in, in terms of exposure, light, water requirements, substrate, and temperature, not to mention that the size of the pot for good growth should not be underestimated.

 December marks the beginning of winter and the return of the cold weather. Most of the actions taken in the garden consist of preventing potential frost damage. This does not mean that there will not be other actions to be taken!

Planting, sowing: what to do in December?

In the food garden, December is a rather quiet month. On the planting side, it's time to sow the hardy weights, asparagus and shallots in the ground. Under cover, you can also sow broccoli, carrots, chervil, cabbage, cauliflower, watercress, lettuce, parsley, peas, leeks and radishes.
As for the harvest, we hope you have made a few preserves, otherwise, no more sunny vegetables! Say hello to winter vegetables like winter radishes, curly chicory, escaroles, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, lamb's lettuce, salsify, Jerusalem artichokes, beets, and carrots. 'In December in the southern region, it's the olive harvest,' says Laurent Petraud, network coordinator at Botanic. A small consolation that will make you think of your holidays by the Mediterranean.
'In December, depending on the climate and the region where you are, you can continue to plant all the plants in the ornamental garden, as well as the fruit trees,' adds Laurent Petraud. As for flowers, if you have transplanted pansies, don't forget to mulch them to protect them from the cold. It's also time to bring in your dahlias if you haven't already.

Maintaining your garden in winter: pruning, cuttings, cleaning, treating

Once the leaves have fallen, it's also time to prune your currants, blackcurrants, raspberries, and young apple and pear trees. But also to take cuttings from small fruit shrubs such as vines, blackcurrants and raspberries, protect the rhubarb plants and force the endives (which means placing the roots next to each other, making sure that the buds are at the same height).
'In December, it's time to collect the leaves, they can be used in the compost or directly on the ground to then enrich the vegetable garden or orchard,' explains Laurent Petraud. Prunings can also be shredded and used as compost or mulch.
'Nourish the soil of the vegetable garden with the chimney ashes; they will enrich the soil with potash (potassium editor's note)', Gamm Vert also advises. You can also dig the unfrozen plots and fertilize them with an amendment.
Also remember to treat your trees preventively with Bordeaux mixture. This fungicide will protect your orchard from diseases like downy mildew. Wilted vegetation and rotten vegetables should also be cleaned to prevent the spread of disease.
Finally, take the scions for the spring grafts of your apple, pear, quince, peach, cherry and plum trees.

Protecting your garden from the cold: what equipment?

In December, you'll make your final preparations before winter gets too biting. It is important to have the right equipment to protect your garden and also to keep an alert eye on the weather. In the event of frost, consider installing overwintering sails or tunnels to protect your plantings in the ground such as spinach, lamb's lettuce and other lettuce.
Generally speaking, installing winter protection will punctuate your schedule in the garden. Don't panic, as you have taken the lead, normally all your chilly plants are in greenhouses. It should also be noted that the greenhouse is ideal for those who prefer to sow early, around mid-February, and harvest late, until October.
Protecting from the cold also means using individual cloches to keep salads and herbs warm. Be careful, on mild and sunny days, remember to raise the bells to avoid burning your plants. Also, don't forget to mulch your soil so it doesn't freeze. This will make harvesting much easier!
After a snowfall, shake tree branches so they don't give way under the weight, and cut off dead or diseased branches. Finally, as in October and November, take advantage of December to dig retention basins, install water collectors and stock up on supplies in order to anticipate spring and summer.

And to help garden friends weather the cold of winter, you can, if you haven't already, set up nesting boxes and other small shelters for them to find refuge in. And don't forget to regularly replenish them with seeds and fat balls to help them feed.

 Pleasant to live in and friendly, the open kitchen has it all. But for it to retain its warm side and for its airy volumes not to become uncomfortable, it is essential to arrange it well. Here are the mistakes, not to make.

It is appreciated for its convivial side, which makes it a living room in its own right. Very trendy in recent years, the open kitchen appeals to lovers of large volumes and those who want to ventilate their interior. But so that its advantages do not become disadvantages, it is important to think carefully about its layout, from the different elements that make it up to the decoration.

Evacuate cooking odours

Protect yourself from noise in the kitchen

A tidy kitchen at all times

Quality materials and meticulous finishes

A well-appointed kitchen

Adequate lighting

 Winter is coming slowly with its shorter days, snowflakes, winter clothes and fireplaces. Winter is the coldest time of the year, but it is also the most magical. For many adults, Christmas revives the child's soul, from the first days of December. Preparations for the holidays begin more or less early depending on everyone's habits. This is how your interior decoration takes on a whole new look by adorning it with magnificent Christmas colours.

Discover the art of Christmas decorating with our inspiring ideas: flickering candles, vibrant color harmonies, and tips for a dazzling tree. Make your parties magical!

Welcome the magic of Christmas with our decorating tips. From the twinkling Christmas tree to the fairy lights to the door and window decorations, every corner of your home will be adorned with magic. Whether you prefer traditional wooden decor or bright outdoor decor, you will find inspiration here to make your celebrations an unforgettable moment. And for those who like creativity, find out how to make your own Christmas decoration.

How to decorate your home for Christmas?

Christmas is the ideal time to transform your interior into a magical and warm place. Here are some creative ideas to give your home an unforgettable festive atmosphere:

• Choose a color palette. Classic combinations like red and green, white and silver, or gold and pine green are always winning choices.
• Fairy lights and candles: Nothing creates a cozy ambiance like the soft glow of fairy lights and candles. Place them on shelves, around windows, and on the coffee table for a touch of magic.
• Wall decorations: Use ephemeral wall decorations like stickers, paper garlands or Christmas posters to add a festive atmosphere to the walls of your home. It’s a quick and inexpensive way to transform space.
• Create a Christmas centerpiece. Place a centerpiece with candles, holly branches, pine cones, or even hanging ornaments for an elegant touch.
• Hang an Advent calendaralong with decorative Christmas stockings on the mantelpiece or on a wall for added charm.

Decorating a window for Christmas.

Windows are an ideal canvas to express your creativity. Use garlands, twinkling stars, or small hanging ornaments to add a festive touch to your windows. Red or white curtains can also complete this winter decoration.

How to make a pretty Christmas decoration for your exterior?

Illuminate your home's exterior with twinkling lights and specific outdoor decorations. Snow floodlights, reindeer silhouettes and fairy lights will dress up your façade to create a real fairytale scene.

Decorating your door for Christmas.

The front door is the first thing your guests will see. Hang a Christmas wreath, add red or gold ribbons, and place lanterns on either side to create a welcoming and festive entrance this holiday season.

How to decorate your Christmas tree?

The tree is the focal point of the Christmas decoration. Choose a color theme and add ornaments, garlands, and lights. Homemade decorations, such as paper balls, can add a personal and creative touch to your Christmas tree.

What are the decorative accessories of the table for New Year's Eve?

For an elegant Christmas table, use tablecloths and table runners in festive colours. Add candle holders, artistically folded napkins, and decorative place cards. Centerpieces with candles or floral arrangements will perfectly complement the décor, ready to host a delicious yule log!

The must-have accessories for a successful Christmas decoration

The magic of Christmas is often in the small details. For a festive and successful decoration, it is essential to take care of the accessories. Discover these must-haves that will add a special touch to your home this holiday season:

• String lights
• Christmas baubles
• Door Crowns
• Multifunctional Lights
• Christmas Socks
• Wrapping paper
• Christmas Figurines
• Scented candles
• Christmas Centerpieces
• Natural elements such as holly branches or pine cones
• An Advent Calendar

Where to find the most beautiful Christmas decorations?

The most beautiful Christmas decorations can be found in a variety of places. Explore local Christmas markets for one-of-a-kind handcrafted pieces, browse specialty home décor shops for stylish, high-end items, and don't overlook dedicated department stores that offer a huge selection at affordable prices. Specialty online stores also offer a diversity of styles, while furniture and home stores can offer stylish pieces. Flea markets, artisan shops, and local art galleries are perfect for authentic finds, while nurseries and garden stores add a natural touch. DIY and hobby stores offer the opportunity to create personalized decorations for the holiday season.

Where to buy your cheap Christmas decoration?

If you're on a budget, discount stores, seasonal sales, and thrift stores can be great sources for finding affordable decorations.

Homemade: Handmade Christmas Decoration Ideas

Nothing beats a homemade Christmas decoration to add a personal touch. Try creating unique paper ornaments, DIY wreaths, and garlands to personalize your space.

When to put up and when to remove your Christmas decoration?

Traditionally, Christmas decorations are put up after the Thanksgiving holiday and removed after the New Year. However, some prefer to prolong the magic by leaving them until Epiphany.

 TB remains a major infectious disease worldwide, with more than 10 million cases, resulting in 1.4 million deaths each year. The synergy with the AIDS epidemic and the emergence of strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Koch's bacillus) multiresistant to antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents contribute to aggravating the impact of this disease, considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a global health emergency. Despite the enormous health and social issues surrounding TB, there is some progress to note. Indeed, the WHO estimates that between 2000 and 2019, 63 million lives were saved thanks to the diagnosis and treatment of this disease, but the future of this promising assessment may be impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which causes many disruptions to screening and treatment centers.

Epidemiology

On average, 10 million people develop an active form of the disease each year (10 million in 2019, according to the World Health Organization - WHO). And TB is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide. In 2019, 1.4 million people died, 208,000 of whom were also infected with HIV. More than 95% of TB deaths occur in developing countries, but TB remains a major public health problem in many industrialized countries, especially when it comes to multidrug-resistant forms, which are particularly difficult and long (2 years) to treat.

Globally, a quarter of the world's population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and 30 countries alone account for 87% of global cases. Globally, there were an estimated 206,030 cases of multidrug-resistant TB in 2019, 10% more than in 2018.

Transmission

Tuberculosis is a contagious disease, caused by the Koch's bacillus (strains of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex). This infectious agent is transmitted by air, via droplets containing bacteria, and expectorated by the cough of patients. Inhaling a small number of contaminated droplets is enough to infect an individual. An untreated TB person can infect an average of 5 to 15 people each year. Precarious health and social conditions are often associated with the spread of the disease.

The disease

The active development of the disease among people infected with Koch's bacillus depends on many factors (genetic, immunological, nutritional, and social). It is estimated that 5-15% of infected people will develop TB with symptoms during their lifetime. The bacillus can remain in the body in a 'dormant' state for years. Immunocompromised people have a higher risk of developing active TB. The HIV virus and Koch's bacillus form a dangerous combination, as system deficiencies caused by HIV infection help TB progression. If left untreated, TB is fatal in almost all people with AIDS.

Treatment

In the 40s, there were no drugs to cure tuberculosis. Today, a combination of antibiotics and chemotherapy is used to treat tuberculosis patients, but treatment must be followed for at least 6 months (and up to two years in the case of multidrug-resistant strains). Incomplete or poorly followed treatment is often responsible for the development of antibiotic-resistant TB, which is then transmitted in the community. When treatable, these cases of drug-resistant TB are 100 times more expensive to treat than TB cases that can be treated with standard regimens.

Vaccine

B.C.G. (Bacille de Calmette et Guérin) is the only vaccine currently licensed to vaccinate against tuberculosis. Nevertheless, this vaccine, which celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2021, is a partially effective vaccine: although it is very useful for preventing severe forms of the disease in young children (almost 90% effective in the case of tuberculous meningitis), it provides little protection against cases of pulmonary tuberculosis in adolescents and adults. It, therefore, does not prevent the transmission of the disease and stop the global epidemic.

At the Institut Pasteur

Several teams of microbiologists, immunologists, and geneticists are developing research programs to understand the host-bacillus interaction (including genomic tools), study the genetic evolution of the bacillus, improve the diagnosis of the disease, and find new anti-tuberculosis drugs and improved vaccines.

Faithful to its teaching mission, the Institut Pasteur offers a course "Tuberculosis – biology of microorganisms", and a MOOC, based on international experts. This course is intended for physicians, veterinarians, directors of clinical mycobacteriology laboratories, pharmacists, and researchers who wish to acquire current knowledge about tuberculosis and the practice of molecular methods of diagnosis and medical susceptibility testing, new drugs and treatment regimens as well as molecular and traditional epidemiology. Created in Shanghai in 2008, it has since been taught in Paris, Tunis, and Yaoundé. The next session of the course will take place in 2023.

Latest WHO Reports

TANZANIA, Tanzania (AP) — Senior United Nations officials, health industry leaders, and activists on Monday called for the world to invest more in developing new vaccines and fighting a resurgence of tuberculosis, fuelled by the impact of COVID-19 and armed conflict, including in Ukraine and Sudan.

Monday's event aims to set the stage for the annual meeting of the UN General Assembly in September, which will hold a meeting on tuberculosis.

The latter is the most common deadly infectious disease today, killing approximately 4400 people every day worldwide, including 700 children," said Dr. Lucica Ditiu, Executive Director of the Stop TB Partnership.

UN Under-Secretary-General Amina Mohammed said international efforts to combat the disease have saved 74 million lives since 2000. However, more than 10.5 million people contracted the disease and about 6.1 million died in 2021, and it is now the leading cause of death among people living with HIV.

The TB epidemic is fuelled by a multitude of factors, including poverty, malnutrition, and HIV, and disproportionately affects the most vulnerable in all countries, she said.

According to her, $22 billion is needed to provide all people diagnosed with TB with access to quality treatment by 2027, as well as access to health and social benefits so that they do not suffer financial hardship. It also says an additional $5 billion a year is needed for research.

"We can develop safe and effective vaccines and one-stop shops for quality testing and care," she said.

The Director-General of the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO), Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, said in a video address to the meeting that COVID-19 "has turned our world upside down" for three years and that in addition to the millions of deaths attributed to it, it has deprived millions of people of essential health services.

"Conflicts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East have made these essential services even more difficult for people living with TB to access," he said. These challenges were a setback in the fight against TB, wiping out some of the important gains we had made over the past 20 years in expanding access to prevention, testing, and treatment. »

Ukraine has the highest estimated number of people with TB in the European Region, at 34 000. It is also home to a high number of people with drug-resistant TB, Dr. Ditiu said.

Ghebreyesus argued that the September meeting must be a turning point in reviving the fight against the disease. This is why WHO "has proposed to establish a TB Vaccine Acceleration Council to facilitate the development, licensing, and use of new vaccines."

 You may be one of those many adults who can't sleep if they don't have a blanket with them, or who stay chilly, even in the late hours of summer nights, when temperatures start to drop. If you find that a simple sheet is too light for you, even in summer, then you need a duvet for the summer. Beware, however, of overheating and excess perspiration if your duvet is too heavy or too hot. Choose it for the summer to enjoy the best sleep. Here are our tips to help you avoid making a mistake.

Duvet for summer: the heat index is your friend

To choose your light duvet for the summer, you have the opportunity to check the characteristics of the models offered in shops and specialized sites. Among these characteristics, one should attract your attention more than the others, the heat index. This one is graduated from 1 to 4 and the higher it is, the warmer the duvet will keep you.

As you can see, there is no question of choosing a duvet with a heat index of 4 or 3 if you want to cover yourself with it in summer. Instead, choose duvets with lower heat indices, ideally 1, because the other indices are reserved for colder seasons.

Note that there is another heat index, it is Anglo-Saxon and is affixed to duvets sold in North America and the United Kingdom in particular. This is the Tog, a reference that makes it possible to evaluate the thermal insulation offered by the duvet. This index ranges from 1 to 15 and the higher it is, the warmer the duvet.

For your summer duvet, an index of 1, up to 4.5 is ideal, because you will have limited insulation that will allow you to have bearable temperatures, but not too cold. If you suffer somewhat from cool summer nights, you can choose a Tog index of 10, which corresponds to a temperate duvet. You opt for a duvet that corresponds to a good compromise and is closer to the spring and autumn duvet than the winter one.

The breathable envelope: an imperative for summer

Even if you like to be covered during your summer nights, you probably don't like waking up covered in sweats or having a restless sleep because of a sweaty and unbreathable duvet. To avoid these inconveniences and so that your nights are peaceful and your sleep deep, prefer duvets with breathable envelopes.

Natural fibers, especially if they are vegetable, are therefore preferred, because they are naturally breathable and will not bother you even if you sweat a lot while sleeping. In addition, it is advisable to choose organic and untreated fibers to prevent your skin from contact with chemicals that could be harmful to it.

To help you choose healthy duvets, you can rely on Oeko Tex certification, an environmental label that guarantees that your duvet does not contain substances that are harmful to the environment or your body. This label also guarantees an eco-responsible and ethical production process that does not represent any danger to human health.

And the filling then?

Your summer duvet must have a filling and it can be made of various materials. Natural Down is by far the one to be preferred, except in case of allergy to Down or asthma aggravated by the use of such materials. The down makes it possible to fill the duvet while giving it lightness and softness, which is ideal for summer nights.

The natural down also makes it possible to have the swelling effect of duvets that sleepers appreciate so much. Another advantage you have by favoring a duvet filled with natural down, is its lifespan. This is two to three times higher than that of a synthetic duvet trim.

To garnish duvets, the most used natural down are of two types, duck down and goose down. Both have about the same characteristics and benefits, but goose down, having larger feathers, allows for an effective filling with fewer grams per square meter. As a result, goose-down duvets are lighter and more breathable than duck-down duvets.

Lightness of the duvet: it all depends on the weight

The lightness of your duvet depends largely on the weight of its down. The higher it is, the heavier the duvet. Thus, for the summer, a duvet with a weight ranging from 130 to 180 grams per square meter is ideal. But you can go slightly higher if you are really chilly and looking for a somewhat warm duvet, even for the summer. You will then have an intermediate-weight duvet that can also be used in spring and autumn but may be too hot on some summer nights when temperature peaks are observed.